---
title: Snapshots & Time Travel
slug: guides/snapshots-and-time-travel
public: true
category: guides
template: guide
order: 9
description: Recipes for the Db API — instant backups with persist(), restore, time-travel debugging with asOf(), range queries over history (diff, history, since, log windows), persist-before-migrate, what-if analysis with with(), and audit trails via transaction metadata.
next:
  - concepts/consistency-model
  - guides/optimistic-concurrency
---

# Snapshots & Time Travel

Brainy 8.0 treats the database as a **value**: `brain.now()` pins the
current state as an immutable `Db`, `brain.transact()` commits an atomic
batch and hands you the resulting value, `brain.asOf()` opens past state,
and `db.persist()` cuts a self-contained snapshot. This guide is the recipe
book. The precise guarantees behind every recipe live in the
[consistency model](../concepts/consistency-model.md).

## Instant backup

Pin the current state, persist it, release:

```typescript
const db = brain.now()
try {
  await db.persist('/backups/2026-06-11')
} finally {
  await db.release()
}
```

On filesystem storage the snapshot is built from **hard links**: every data
file in Brainy is immutable-by-rename, so the snapshot is created without
copying entity data and shares disk space with the live store. Later writes
can never alter it — a rewrite swaps the inode, the snapshot keeps the old
bytes. Cross-device targets fall back to per-file byte copies, and
persisting an in-memory brain serializes it to the same directory layout —
a real, durable store.

Two things to know:

- `persist()` requires the view to still be the store's **latest**
  generation. If something committed after your pin, it throws
  `GenerationConflictError` instead of snapshotting the wrong state — pin
  and persist before further writes, or retry with a fresh `brain.now()`.
- The target directory must be empty or absent.

For scheduled backups, this loop is the whole job:

```typescript
const db = brain.now()
try {
  await db.persist(`/backups/${new Date().toISOString().slice(0, 10)}`)
} finally {
  await db.release()
}
```

## Restore

`restore()` replaces the store's **entire** current state from a snapshot —
entities, relationships, indexes, history. It is deliberately loud about it:

```typescript
await brain.restore('/backups/2026-06-11', { confirm: true })
```

- `{ confirm: true }` is mandatory — current state is destroyed.
- The snapshot is copied in (never linked), so it stays independent and can
  be restored again later.
- All indexes are rebuilt from the restored records.
- The generation counter is floored at its pre-restore value, so generation
  numbers you observed before the restore are never reissued.
- Live `Db` pins do not survive a restore — release them first.

## Open a snapshot read-only

You do not have to restore to look inside a snapshot. `Brainy.load()` opens
it as a self-contained read-only store with the **full query surface**,
including vector search:

```typescript
const db = await Brainy.load('/backups/2026-06-11')

const hits = await db.find({ query: 'unpaid invoices from the spring campaign' })
const orders = await db.find({ type: NounType.Document, subtype: 'order' })

await db.release()   // closes the underlying read-only instance
```

`brain.asOf('/backups/2026-06-11')` does the same from an existing brain.
This is also the 8.0 answer to "named branches": a branch is a name → path
mapping your application keeps, where each path is a persisted snapshot.
Need a writable copy? Restore the snapshot into a fresh data directory and
open a writer on it — instead of switching a shared store between branches
in place, every line of code always sees exactly the store it opened.

## Time-travel debugging

When production data looks wrong, query the past directly — by wall-clock
time or by generation:

```typescript
// What did this order look like yesterday?
const yesterday = await brain.asOf(new Date(Date.now() - 86_400_000))
const before = await yesterday.get(orderId)

// Full queries work at any reachable generation — search, graph, filters:
const thenActive = await yesterday.find({
  type: NounType.Document,
  subtype: 'order',
  where: { status: 'active' }
})

await yesterday.release()
```

Pin two points in time and diff them:

```typescript
const before = await brain.asOf(1041)
const after = brain.now()

const changed = await after.since(before)
changed.nouns   // entity ids touched by transactions in between
changed.verbs   // relationship ids touched in between

await before.release()
await after.release()
```

Three things to remember:

- History granularity is per-write: EVERY write — `transact()` AND a
  single-operation `add`/`update`/`remove`/`relate` — is its own immutable
  generation, so a pin always freezes against later writes and every write is
  individually addressable via `asOf()` (see the
  [consistency model](../concepts/consistency-model.md)). Use `transact()` when
  you want several operations to share ONE atomic generation.
- The first index-accelerated query (semantic search, traversal, cursors,
  aggregation) at a historical generation builds an in-memory index
  materialization — O(n at that generation), once per `Db`, freed on
  `release()`. Metadata-level reads are free.
- Generations reclaimed by `compactHistory()` throw
  `GenerationCompactedError` — persist anything you need to keep forever.

## Range queries over history

`asOf()` answers "what was the state AT a point". Four range verbs answer
"what happened BETWEEN two points" and "what is one entity's whole history".
They all build on the same generation records — no extra bookkeeping.

### `diff(a, b)` — what changed, classified

`since()` gives you the raw set of *touched* ids. `diff()` goes further: it
resolves each touched id at both endpoints and classifies it as **added**,
**removed**, or **modified** — split by entities (`nouns`) and relationships
(`verbs`). An id that was touched but ended up identical (changed then
reverted, or created and deleted within the interval) lands in **none** of the
buckets. Endpoints are a generation, a `Date`, or a `Db`, in either order:

```typescript
const d = await brain.diff(1041, brain.generation())

d.added.nouns      // entity ids created between the two states
d.removed.nouns    // entity ids deleted
d.modified.nouns   // entity ids whose stored value actually changed
d.added.verbs      // …relationships, the same three ways
```

Orientation is `a → b`: `added` means "exists at `b`, not at `a`". The
comparison behind `modified` is key-order-insensitive, so a no-op re-write of
the same fields never shows up as a change.

### `history(id, range?)` — one entity, every version

`asOf()` is per-*generation*; `history()` is per-*entity*. It returns every
distinct version of one id over a range, oldest first — each `value` is the
materialized state at that version (and `null` marks a removal):

```typescript
const h = await brain.history(invoiceId)

for (const v of h.versions) {
  console.log(v.generation, v.value?.metadata?.status ?? '(deleted)')
}
// 1041 'draft'
// 1043 'approved'
// 1050 'paid'
```

Every version ties to the trusted `asOf()` path — `v.value` equals
`(await brain.asOf(v.generation)).get(id)`. Pass `{ from, to }` (generation or
`Date`) to bound the range; a `from` below the compaction horizon is quietly
truncated to it rather than throwing (history is best-effort over surviving
records).

### `since()` and `transactionLog()` take ranges too

`since()` accepts a `Db`, a generation number, or a `Date` — all equivalent,
all an **exclusive** lower bound (`db.since(prior)` equals
`db.since(prior.generation)`):

```typescript
await brain.now().since(1041)                          // ids changed after generation 1041
await brain.now().since(new Date(Date.now() - 3_600_000)) // …in the last hour
```

`transactionLog({ from, to })` windows the commit log **inclusively** on both
ends (a log window names the commits it spans — the deliberate contrast to
`since`'s exclusive lower bound); `limit` applies after the window, newest
first:

```typescript
const window = await brain.transactionLog({ from: 1041, to: 1050 })  // commits 1041…1050
const recent = await brain.transactionLog({ from: lastHour, limit: 20 })
```

### Composing them

"Which orders changed in this window?" is `diff` ids intersected with an
`asOf` query — the two agree by construction:

```typescript
const changed = await brain.diff(g1, g2)
const atG2 = await brain.asOf(g2)
const changedOrders = (await atG2.find({ type: NounType.Document, subtype: 'order' }))
  .map(r => r.id)
  .filter(id => changed.added.nouns.includes(id) || changed.modified.nouns.includes(id))
await atG2.release()
```

One contrast to keep straight: `diff` and `since` **throw**
`GenerationCompactedError` for a bound below the horizon, while `history`
**truncates** to the horizon — diffs must be exact, history is best-effort.

## Safe schema migration

`brain.migrate()` integrates with snapshots directly: pass `backupTo` and a
hard-link snapshot of the current generation is persisted **before any
transform runs**:

```typescript
const result = await brain.migrate({ backupTo: '/backups/pre-migration-8.0' })
console.log(result.migrationsApplied, result.backupPath)

// If the migration went wrong, roll the whole store back:
await brain.restore('/backups/pre-migration-8.0', { confirm: true })
```

The same persist-before-mutate pattern works for any risky bulk operation,
not just migrations:

```typescript
const pin = brain.now()
try {
  await pin.persist('/backups/pre-bulk-edit')
} finally {
  await pin.release()
}
await runRiskyBulkEdit(brain)
```

## What-if analysis

`db.with(ops)` applies a transaction **speculatively, in memory** — nothing
touches disk, the generation counter, or the indexes. Ask "what would the
store look like if…", then commit the same operations for real:

```typescript
const ops = [
  { op: 'update', id: employeeId, metadata: { team: 'platform' } },
  { op: 'relate', from: employeeId, to: milestoneId, type: VerbType.ParticipatesIn, subtype: 'assignment' }
]

const base = brain.now()
const whatIf = await base.with(ops)

await whatIf.get(employeeId)                          // sees the change
await whatIf.find({ where: { team: 'platform' } })    // metadata finds work
await whatIf.related(employeeId)                      // overlay relations included

await whatIf.release()
await base.release()

// Looks right — make it real, atomically:
await brain.transact(ops)
```

**The boundary:** speculative entities carry no embeddings (`with()` never
invokes the embedder), so semantic search, traversal, cursors, aggregation,
and `persist()` throw `SpeculativeOverlayError` on overlay views instead of
returning silently incomplete results. `get()`, metadata-filter `find()`,
and filter-based `related()` are fully supported. Overlays chain — calling
`with()` on an overlay stacks another layer.

## Audit trails

`transact()` reifies transaction metadata: whatever you pass as `meta` is
recorded durably alongside the committed generation and timestamp, readable
via `brain.transactionLog()`:

```typescript
await brain.transact(
  [{ op: 'update', id: invoiceId, metadata: { status: 'approved' } }],
  { meta: { author: 'approvals-service', actor: 'jane@example.com', reason: 'PO-7741' } }
)

const log = await brain.transactionLog({ limit: 20 })   // newest first
// [{ generation: 1042, timestamp: 1765432100000, meta: { author: 'approvals-service', ... } }]
```

Combine the log with `asOf()` to reconstruct exactly what any transaction
did:

```typescript
const [entry] = await brain.transactionLog({ limit: 1 })

const after = await brain.asOf(entry.generation)
const before = await brain.asOf(entry.generation - 1)

const touched = await after.since(before)
for (const id of touched.nouns) {
  console.log(id, await before.get(id), '→', await after.get(id))
}

await before.release()
await after.release()
```

For per-entity write coordination (rather than whole-store history), the
`_rev` counter and `ifRev` CAS remain the right tool — see
[optimistic concurrency](./optimistic-concurrency.md).

## Keeping history bounded

Under Model-B every write is a generation, so history can grow quickly —
Brainy auto-compacts on every `flush()`/`close()` under the **`retention`**
knob (configured on the constructor):

```typescript
// Zero-config: ADAPTIVE — keep as much history as free disk/RAM allows,
// reclaiming oldest-first under pressure. (This is the default.)
new Brainy({ /* retention unset */ })

// Unbounded — never reclaim history (opt in explicitly):
new Brainy({ retention: 'all' })

// Explicit CAPS — reclaim oldest-unpinned generations while ANY cap is exceeded:
new Brainy({ retention: { maxGenerations: 1000, maxAge: 7 * 86_400_000, maxBytes: 512 * 1024 ** 2 } })
```

Reclaim manually at any time (the same caps):

```typescript
await brain.compactHistory({ maxGenerations: 100, maxAge: 7 * 24 * 60 * 60 * 1000 })
```

Compaction never breaks a pinned read — record-sets are reclaimed only when
no live `Db` could need them (live pins are ALWAYS exempt). Release views you
are done with (including the ones `transact()` returns), and `persist()` any
generation you want to keep beyond the retention window: snapshots are
self-contained and unaffected by compaction.

## Time travel for files (the VFS)

Since 8.2.0, time travel covers Virtual Filesystem **content**, not just
entity records. File bytes are retention-protected: a content blob referenced
by any generation inside the retention window is never reclaimed, so reading
the past always returns the exact bytes — never a stale field or a
dangling hash.

**`vfs.readFile(path, { asOf })`** takes a generation number or a `Date` and
returns the file's exact bytes as they stood then. It resolves the path's
current entity, then materializes its state at the target generation — so it
answers *"what did the file at this path hold at that point?"* It bypasses
the content cache; the `encoding` option still applies. Asking about a
generation before the file existed throws the usual not-found error, and
asking past the retention window's compaction horizon throws a
compacted-generation error.

**`vfs.history(path)`** returns the file's versions inside the retention
window, oldest first — one `FileVersion` per generation that wrote the file,
the newest entry being the current state:

```typescript
// A CMS page evolves…
await brain.vfs.writeFile('/pages/home.json', '{"title":"Launch"}')
await brain.vfs.writeFile('/pages/home.json', '{"title":"Launch v2"}')
await brain.vfs.writeFile('/pages/home.json', '{"title":""}') // bad deploy!

// Every version is listed and readable:
const versions = await brain.vfs.history('/pages/home.json')
// → [{ generation, timestamp, hash, size, mimeType? }, …] ascending

const good = versions[versions.length - 2]
const bytes = await brain.vfs.readFile('/pages/home.json', {
  asOf: good.generation
})

// Restore = write the old bytes back. This is a NEW write (a new
// generation) — history is never rewritten, so the bad version stays
// visible in the audit trail.
await brain.vfs.writeFile('/pages/home.json', bytes)
```

Two lifecycle consequences worth stating plainly:

- **Deleting or overwriting a file no longer frees its bytes immediately.**
  Old content lives until history compaction reclaims the generations that
  reference it — the same `retention` budget that bounds all Model-B history
  (and pinned views are exempt, exactly as above). Size your `retention` for
  the file-version depth you want; `retention: 'all'` keeps every version of
  every file forever.
- **After `compactHistory()` reclaims a generation, its file versions are
  gone** and their bytes are physically reclaimed. (This also fixed a
  pre-8.2.0 defect where overwritten content was never reclaimed at all — an
  unbounded silent leak.)

## From branches to values

If you used the pre-8.0 `fork`/`checkout`/`commit`/`versions` surface, every
use case maps to a sharper tool:

| Pre-8.0 habit | 8.0 recipe |
|---|---|
| `fork()` to experiment safely | `db.with(ops)` for speculation in memory; a restored snapshot in a fresh directory for a long-lived writable copy |
| `commit()` checkpoints | `transact(ops, { meta })` — every batch is an atomic, logged, time-travelable commit |
| `checkout()` to switch branches | Open the snapshot you want — `Brainy.load(path)` read-only, or restore into its own directory. No in-place switching: every handle always sees one unambiguous store. |
| `getHistory()` | `brain.transactionLog()` + `db.since(priorDb)` |
| `versions.save()` per-entity snapshots | A pinned `Db` or persisted snapshot captures *every* entity at that moment; `asOf()` reads any entity's past state |
| `versions.restore()` | `brain.restore(snapshot, { confirm: true })` for the whole store, or read the old entity via `asOf()` and write it back with `transact()` |
| Backup branches | `db.persist(path)` — instant, hard-link-shared, self-contained |